SLHS 270

1. A person who buys a lottery ticket because s/he just feels lucky is using the method of ____. a. empiricism b. faith c. tenacity d. intuition d 2. Which method of acquiring knowledge is being used when people accept information as true because it has been believed for a very long time or is supported by superstition? a. intuition b. rationalism c. tenacity d. authority c 3. What is a potential problem with the method of authority? a. A person may claim to be an expert when he or she really is not. b. An “expert” answer may be only a personal, subjective opinion. c. An expert may be giving answers outside his or her area of expertise. d. A,B and C are all all potential problems. d 4. A patient who demands a second opinion before agreeing to surgery is double checking information obtained by the ____. a. method of authority b. rational method c. empirical method d. method of intuition a 5. Last year Tomas and his friend Jamie were both too short to ride the rollercoaster. Jamie went to the park this year and was tall enough to ride. Because Tomas is taller than Jamie, he thinks that he will be able to ride the rollercoaster as well. Tomas is using the ____ to answer his question. , a. , method of empiricism , b. , rational method , c. , method of authority , d. , scientific method b 6. An explanation is rational if it is based on ____. , a. , widely held beliefs , b. , logical deductions , c. , evidence of the senses , d. , respect for the source of the explanation b 7. Which method of acquiring knowledge is being used by a person who says “I’ll believe it when I see it?” , , a. , method of empiricism , , b. , rational method , , c. , method of authority , , d. , scientific method a 8. Visual illusions, such as the vertical/horizontal illusion, provide a demonstration of one problem with the ____ method of knowing or acquiring knowledge. , a. rational, , b. authority, , c. empircal, , d. scientific, c 9. When your doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to your heart, the doctor is gathering information by using the ____. , a. , method of authority , b. , rational method , c. , empirical method , d. , method of intuition c 10. A limitation of using the method of empiricism is that ____. a. people are generally not very good at reasoning b. while perception is typically accurate, sensation is not c. the process can be time consuming and often risky d. A and B d 11. Which of the following is the best description of the scientific method? , a. , a circular process that leads to a final answer , b. , a linear process that moves directly to a final answer , c. , a circular process that leads to a tentative answer , d. , a linear process that leads to a tentative answer c 12. What kind of reasoning uses a general statement to make conclusions about specific examples? , a. , inductive , b. , deductive , c. , scientific , d. , predictive b 13. What kind of reasoning uses a few specific observations to produce a statement about a larger possible set of observations? , a. , inductive , b. , deductive , c. , scientific , d. , predictive a 14. A hypothesis is a ____ statement and a prediction is a ____ statement. , a. , specific; general , b. , specific; specific , c. , general; specific , d. , general; general c 15. In the scientific method, a prediction is evaluated by ____. , a. , making systematic, planned observations , b. , determining the hypothesis of best fit , c. , logically evaluating the implications , d. , using it to explain established phenomena a 16. A distinction between science and pseudoscience is that ____. , , a. , science focuses on the theoretical, not the practical , , b. , science is based on hypotheses that are testable and refutable , , c. , science examines a topic that has never been investigated , , d. , science aims to make definite conclusions about a topic b 17. Lowell is very concerned about his grandmother, who has recently been diagnosed with dementia. He wants to learn more about it, and checks out the jacket quotes on some currently popular books. Which quote should reassure him that the book is based in science rather than pseudoscience? , a. , “This book saved my wife from a lonely death in a nursing home!” , b. , “Big Pharma does not want you to know about curing dementia!” , c. , “From laboratory research to clinical trials: evaluating the treatment of dementia.” , d. , “Find out what REALLY causes dementia and why health agencies do not care.” c 18. The first step in the research process is ____. , , a. , identifying an idea and searching the literature to form the research question , , b. , forming a testable, refutable hypothesis based on current theories , , c. , deciding which individuals should participate and how they should be recruited , , d. , selecting a research and analytic strategy based on what is typically used a 19. Publically repeating a study by copying the methods exactly is referred to as ____. , a. , empiricism , b. , replication , c. , control , d. , tenacity b 20. Tiffany is researching methods used to treat autism spectrum disorders and begins by searching on the Internet. Which statement should make her suspicious that she is on a site rooted in pseudoscience? , a. , The website contains testimonials from family members that describe seemingly miraculous cures. , b. , The site contains links to research published in peer-reviewed journals that evaluate the treatment method. , c. , The treatment methods described on the site are clearly defined, as are the expected outcomes. , d. , The site provides clear explanations of how the treatment methods are tied to existing theories of the causes of autism. a 1. While shopping, you observe the behavior of adolescents at the mall and get some ideas about what may be causing the behavior. This is an example of getting research ideas from ____. , a. , theory , b. , casual observation , c. , systematic observation , d. , second hand information , , b 2. Combat veterans may be diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). You wonder about the best way to treat PTSD. This is an example of getting research ideas from ____. , a. , theory , b. , random thoughts , c. , practical problems , d. , systematic observation c 3. A researcher initiates a study to determine whether there is a significant decrease in student stress if class quizzes are announced rather than given on a “pop” basis. This study can best be classified as ____ research. , , a. , basic , , b. , applied , , c. , systematic , , d. , quantitative b 4. Finding out why clients diagnosed with schizophrenia do not consistently take their medication would be an example of ____. , a. , basic research , b. , applied research , c. , Pseudo-scientific research , d. , Qualitative research a 5. A ____ source contains original research reports. , a. secondary , , b. primary, , c. premier, , d peer-reviewed, , e. germinal, b 6. A newspaper article discussing someone’s research is an example of a ____ source. , a. , primary , b. , secondary , c. , premier , d. , germinal , e. , qualitative b 7. Your PsycInfo search has yielded several hundred articles. The most efficient next step is to ____. a. read the abstracts to determine if you want to read the articles b. cross-check the references with the lists obtained with other, related subject words c. print off the articles so that you can read them at your convenient d. scan through the titles to see which ones seem most suited to your interests d 8. An advantage of a database that is not full-text is that it will likely ____. a. contain only a fraction of the publications in an area b. contain too many publications to be useful c. provide word-for-word copies of each publication d. provide more complete coverage of a topic area d 9. The introduction section of a research article typically ____. , a. , provides interpretation of the findings , b. , describes the overall purpose and rationale of the research , c. , includes the results of statistical analyses , d. , provides the details of the methodology used in the study b 10. Which section of a research article is most likely to provide suggestions for additional research? , a. , introduction , b. , method , c. , results , d. , discussion d 11. When you identify a gap in the literature, you ____. , a. , have found a poorly conceived study , b. , have found a potential research idea , c. , are dealing with a topic that cannot be studied , d. , are wise to switch topics b 12. Which section of a research article can help you to develop ideas for studies by changing the characteristics of the participants or modifying the procedures for your own study? , , a. , introduction , , b. , method , , c. , results , , d. , abstract b 13. Which statement is the best example of a hypothesis? , a. , There is no relationship between fatigue and reaction time. , b. , Sugar consumption is not related to level of activity. , c. , Smaller class size is related to better academic performance. , d. , Self-esteem does not affect persistence on a difficult task. c 14. Give a short explanation of your answer to #13 (4 points). 15. Circle all of the hypotheses that can be tested. , a. , People worry too much about stress. , b. , Children can learn to decrease their stress levels faster than adults. , c. , Stress increases when the election does turn out the way you wished , d. , People use stress as an excuse to be rude. abd 16. A textbook is a primary source. , a. , True , b. , False a 17. Give a short explanation of your answer for #16 (2 points) including in your answer definitions of primary and secondary sources. 18. The discussion section of a research report often contains a description of the limitations of the research. , a. , True , b. , False a 1. The Nuremberg Code was developed ____. , a. , following war crimes trials after World War II in the 1940s , b. , by the APA following Milgram's obedience study in the 1960s , c. , by the U.S. Surgeon General following medical experiments in the 1970s , d. , by the FDA to regulate prescription medications in the 1980s a 2. The Tuskegee study involved ____. a. injecting unsuspecting patients with live cancer cells b. failing to provide treatment for men with syphilis c. appearing to administer severe shocks to participants d. exposing participants to extremes of freezing temperature b 3. The Milgram study involved ____. a. injecting unsuspecting patients with live cancer cells b. failing to provide treatment for men with syphilis c. asking participants to administer what appeared to be severe shocks to other people d. exposing participants to extremes of freezing temperature c 4. Milgram’s obedience study is ethically questionable because the ____. a. participants were compensated with an exorbitant fee b. shocks posed a threat of real physical harm c. participants were potentially psychologically harmed d. participants’ confidentiality was not protected c 5. Clinical equipoise refers to a ____. a. researcher’s ethical responsibility to do no harm b. researcher’s ethical responsibility to provide informed consent c. clinician’s ethical responsibility to provide the best possible treatment for research participants d. clinician’s ethical responsibility to ensure that people get care even if they cannot pay for it b 6. According to the principle of clinical equipoise, it is unacceptable to conduct a study comparing two treatments when ____. a. the treatments are known to be equally effective b. there is no information about the effectiveness of either treatment c. one treatment is known to be more effective than the other d. experts disagree about the effectiveness of the treatments c 7. Although the intent of informed consent is to provide participants with complete information about a research study before they agree to participate, this is sometimes impossible because ____. a. deception is an important part of the research b. there is no real reason to tell them everything c. people do not bother to read the form d. people are often unable to understand the research protocol a 8. Under which of the following circumstances is informed consent not necessary? a. a drug study where participants receive experimental medication b. perceptual research where participants are asked to judge different colors c. a public opinion survey where participants complete anonymous questionnaires d. when the participants are unlikely to be able to understand the consent form c 9. A researcher who tells participants that a questionnaire is measuring political attitudes when in fact it is measuring racial prejudices, is committing ____. a. active deception b. passive deception c. fraud d. plagiarism a 10. Which form of deception is permitted in psychological research? a. telling participants they will be paid and then not paying them b. not telling participants about a possible risk of serious physical harm in the study c. observing participants who don’t know they are being observed d. telling participants they can withdraw at any time and then refusing to let them leave c 11. What is one of the guidelines for using deception in a research study? a. Individuals must be informed that deception is involved before they consent to participate. b. Individuals must be debriefed about the deception within six weeks after the data have been analyzed. c. The deception can only be something a “reasonable person” would consider acceptable d. The deception cannot conceal a real risk or danger to participants. a 12. Researchers often use a coding system to associate data with a particular participant during the course of a research study in order to ____. , a. , reduce the risk of fraud , b. , help protect confidentiality , c. , help with data analysis , d. , deceive participants c 13. A researcher tells stories at a party describing the behavior of individual participants in his or her research study. Which ethical principle is being compromised? , a. , no harm , b. , informed consent , c. , confidentiality , d. , anonymity c 14. One responsibility of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to ensure that ____. , a. , research reports are honest and accurate , b. , nonhuman subjects will be kept safe in research , c. , human participants will be kept safe in research , d. , human participants will not be deceived in research c 15. One of the primary responsibilities of the IRB is to carefully review ____. , a. , the informed consent procedure , b. , the statistical analyses , c. , other research in the topic area , d. , any manuscripts produced from the research a 16. The ethical guidelines for nonhuman subjects include that all individuals who are using animals in research have received training in ____. , a. , animal handling and care , b. , history of the animal rights movement , c. , use of methods that do not require animals , d. , humane euthanasia a 19. Which behavior is an example of plagiarism? , a. , talking about your research before it is published , b. , integrating your own ideas into someone else’s work , c. , using someone else’s ideas in your research report without a citation , d. , making a mistake in the formatting of a reference C 62. Describe a problem that can arise when you are trying to obtain information using only the method of authority. How is this problem avoided in the scientific method? A problem could be that the expert has a biased opinion, this is avoided by corroborating with more than one source 63. Describe a problem that can arise when you are trying to obtain information using only the rational method. How is this problem avoided in the scientific method? Making rational observations takes time to be accurate and in the delay there may be a dilution of the percieved benefits or disadvantages of a decision this can be avoided by making sure that answers come from logical reasoning 64. Describe how the rational method and the method of empiricism are both utilized as parts of the scientific method. In the scientific method you must make systematic, planned observations to support or refute the hypothesis which uses the empirical method. Rationalism is used in supporting and refuting by deducing answers from true premises. 66. Identify the basic steps in the scientific method and describe how the scientific method is used to answer questions such as, “Why are some marriages successful and others are not?” Observe Form hypothesis Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction Evaluate prediction by observing Conclude 68. Distinguish between science and pseudoscience. , Science= scientific experimentation, replication of results, peer review Pseudoscience= statements, beliefs, practices that are claimed to be scientific and factual but are not compatible with the scientific method 61. Describe why the best strategy for finding a research idea is to begin with a general topic area. By choosing a topic you can find gaps in the literature regaurding the topic and choose what to research from those gaps. 63. What is the difference between a primary and a secondary source? 65. Describe the steps involved in conducting a literature search. Subject words Read titles to find relevant literature 66. Describe the difference between conducting a key word search on the Web and PsycINFO. , , , , , , , , , 67. Describe what you can expect to see in each of the five sections of a research article. Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion 61. Informed consent involves three elements: information, understanding, and volunteering. Describe how the intent of informed consent can be compromised by limitations in any one of these three elements. In emergency situations people cannot fully obtain all of the necessary information to give informed consent 62. Describe a situation where it may be permissible to dispense with informed consent. Public health such as putting flouride in water 63. Describe the common components of consent forms. The medical provider must disclose information on the treatment, including the expected benefits and risks, and the likelihood (or probability) that the benefits and risks will occur. 64. Briefly explain why a researcher might find it necessary to use deception in a research study. In order to acquire reliable and unbiased research results, especially in psychological experiments, the less that the subject knows, the better. Using deception is the only way to obtain certain kinds of information. 66. Explain the role of the IRB. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated. 67. Describe a few ways to prevent plagiarism. paraphrase Cite Quoting Citing quotes Referencing 1. Most journals in psychology follow the writing style established by the ____. a. American Psychiatric Association b. American Psychic Association c. American Psychological Association d. Association for Psychology c 2. To avoid biased language, ____ should be used in APA-writing style. a. citations b. expository writing c. preferred labels d. jargon a 3. Which example illustrates the proper way to cite a source in a research report when the author’s name appears outside the body of the sentence? a. (Sam Smith, 2005) b. (Smith, 2005) c. (2005, Sam Smith) d. (2005, Smith) b 4. Which example illustrates the proper way to cite a source in a research report when the author’s name appears as the subject of the sentence? a. Smith, 2005 b. Sam Smith, 2005 c. Smith (2005) d. Smith (in 2005) c 5. Which example illustrates the proper way to cite a source with two authors in a research report when the authors’ names appear outside the body of the sentence? a. (Smith and Jones, 2005) b. (Smith & Jones, 2005) c. (Sam Smith and Bill Jones, 2005) d. (Sam Smith & Bill Jones, 2005) a 6. Which example illustrates the proper way to cite a source with two authors in a research report when the authors’ names appear as the subject of the sentence? a. Smith and Jones, 2005 b. Smith & Jones, 2005 c. Smith and Jones (2005) d. Smith & Jones (2005) c 7. The second time you cite a publication with four authors in your report, what should be included in the citation? a. all four authors’ names and the date b. the first author’s last name followed by et al. and the date c. the first author’s last name followed by op. cit. and the date d. the first two authors’ last names and the date b 8. A research report title should ____. a. be a maximum of 50 characters b. begin with the words “A study of” c. describe the study as completely as possible in no more than 12 words d. include mention of the population, method, and conclusions in no more than 20 words ANSWER: c 9. If a research manuscript is printed in a journal, where does the running head appear? a. on every page of the manuscript and on every page of the journal article b. on every page of the manuscript and only on the first page of the journal article c. only on the first page of the manuscript but on every page of the journal article d. only on the first page of the manuscript and only on the first page of the journal article a 10. The running head is ____. a. the title of the research report b. a complete but abbreviated title c. the first two to three words of the title d. the page header b 11. The running head ____. a. is the first two to three words of the title b. appears on every page c. appears on odd-numbered pages d. appears only on the title page b 12. In an APA-style research report, where does the author note appear? a. on the title page b. on the abstract page c. before the references d. after the references a 13. The brief summary found at the beginning of most research reports is the ____. a. synopsis b. preface c. abstract d. introduction c 14. An abstract of a research report typically contains ____. a. a review of the literature b. the research question or problem c. new information not included in the paper d. figures and/or tables b 15. An abstract of a research report typically includes ____. a. a brief description of the individuals in the study b. a comprehensive literature review c. the most important tables and figures d. copies of assessment instruments a 16. The review of the literature found in the introduction to an APA-style research report would ____. a. provide an in-depth review of even the most basic concepts that relate to the research b. thoroughly review all research published in the topic area of the research c. discuss only the articles most relevant to the research question d. provide detailed information about each article cited c 17. The introduction section of an APA-style research report begins on page 3, ____. a. headed with the word Introduction centered and typed in boldface type b. headed with the word Introduction at the left margin and typed in boldface type c. headed with the word Introduction at the left margin and typed in italics d. without a heading of “Introduction” d 18. An introduction of a research report typically contains ____. a. a short summary of the findings b. the research question or problem c. a description of participants d. the implications of the findings b 19. In which section of a psychological research report should the hypothesis of the study be stated? a. results b. method c. introduction d. references c 20. The method section of an APA-style research reports is headed with the word Method ____. a. centered and typed in boldface type. b. at the left margin and typed in boldface type. c. centered and typed in italics. d. at the left margin and typed in italics. a 21. The method section of an APA-style research report ____. a. provides a general description of the study b. always begins on a new page after the introduction c. gives a report of the results d. begins immediately following the introduction, not on a new page d 22. The method section of an APA-style research report ____. a. provides a general description of the study b. provides enough detail for replication c. includes a results subsection d. gives a report of the results b 23. According to the most recent edition of the Publication Manual, information describing the sample of humans that participated in the study would be found in which subsection of the method section? a. procedure b. apparatus c. subjects d. participants d 24. In the materials subsection of an APA-style methods section, you tell the reader ____. a. what equipment was used in the study b. who participated in the study c. what questionnaires were used in the study d. the preliminary results of the study a 25. The method section is designed to answer what questions? a. What was the hypothesis of the study? b. How was the study conducted? c. How were the data analyzed? d. What was the purpose of the study? b 26. Which subsection of the method section describes everything that happened during the study? a. participants b. apparatus c. materials d. procedure d 27. The results section of an APA-style research report typically describes the ____. a. interpretation of the findings b. findings of descriptive and inferential statistics c. implications of the findings d. manipulations that were used b 28. In reporting tests of significance, ____. a. indicate why the test was used b. identify the degrees of freedom c. state the null hypothesis d. outline the strengths and weaknesses of the test d 29. The discussion section of an APA-style research report typically contains which of the following? a. restatement of the hypothesis b. comprehensive literature review c. complete description of the participants/subjects d. all tables and figures a 30. How should author names be shown in the reference section of an APA-style research report? a. only the last name for every author b. the last name and initials for every author c. the first and last name for every author d. the last name and initials for the first author only b 31. APA guidelines for word processing include ____. a. 12-point font b. 1 ½ ” margins c. single spacing d. hyphenating at end of lines a 32. Which is the correct order of the sections of a research report? a. introduction, references, method, results, and discussion b. introduction, method, results, and discussion c. abstract, introduction, method, and results d. abstract, discussion, introduction, method, results, and discussion c 33. The pages of a research report are ____. a. numbered starting on the title page b. numbered starting on the abstract page c. numbered starting with the body of the research report d. not numbered a 34. In APA style, where do page numbers appear? a. at the upper left hand corner of the page b. at the upper right hand corner of the page c. at the center bottom of the page d. at the lower right hand corner of the page b 35. When is the abstract for a research report usually written? a. after the title page is written b. after the data are collected c. first, before any other part of the report d. last, after the entire report is completed d 36. Each subsection of the method sections of an APA-style research report begins with a heading (such as Subjects or Participants) ____. a. centered and typed in boldface type b. at the left margin and typed in boldface type c. centered and typed in italics d. at the left margin and typed in italics a 37. Where should figures be placed in a manuscript? a. in an appropriate place in the text b. at the end of the manuscriptz c. at the beginning of the manuscript d. on the page immediately following their location in the text b 38. When describing the research, a research proposal should typically use ____ tense. a. past b. present c. future d. conditional c 39. Research proposals contain which of the following kinds of information? a. how the research was conducted b. who participated in the research c. how participants or subjects were measured d. what will be done d 40. A research proposal is a ____. a. r esearch report b. conference presentation c. conference poster d. plan for a new study d 61. Describe what elements are typically contained in an APA-style abstract for a research report. An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions. 62. Describe the four parts that are typically contained in an introduction section of an APA-style research report. What was I studying? Why was this topic important to investigate? What did we know about this topic before I did this study? How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? 63. Describe the two subsections typically contained in a methods section of an APA-style research report. 1The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. 2The interpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way. 64. When reporting statistical significance of inferential statistics, what items should be included? Probability and confidence 65. What is the purpose of a research proposal? The main purpose of a research proposal is to convince the reader of the value of your project and your competence. 66. Describe the ways in which a research proposal is different from a research report. In a research proposal, you are proposing (suggesting) what you will later report on. If accepted, then you perform the research that you proposed and write the research report. The research report is the finished product, while the research proposal is just saying what you plan to do. http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/methodology 44. When citing more than one publication within the same parentheses, list the items in order by date. a. True b. False b 45. When citing a source in a research report (in APA format), the author’s full first name is included. a. True b. False b 46. When using direct quotations in an APA-style research report, you must provide the page number if it is available. a. True b. False a 49. The hypothesis for the study is stated at the beginning of the results section. a. True b. False b 53. The discussion section of an APA-style research report often contains suggestions for future research. a. True b. False a 61. Describe the primary distinction between descriptive research and other research strategies. in experimental research, to explain causal relationship between independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV), you have to manipulate the IV. in descriptive research there is no variable manipulation because you don't want to explain any relationship between variables. 63. Behavioral observation is used in many different types of research. What is the specific characteristic that differentiates the observational research design from other research using behavioral observation? nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions using this approach. 64. Describe the three types of behavioral observation and briefly explain the circumstances under which each is used. 1 Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory. 2 Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings 3 Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives. I https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html 65. Describe the three types of survey questions and outline the advantages and disadvantages of each. 1 Questionnaires-- Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or consumer research Disadvantages: Limit the researcher’s understanding of the respondent’s answers; requires budget for reproduction of survey questionnaires 2 Interviews Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the answers of the respondents Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed phone numbers or no telephones at all 3 cross sectional Well shit https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/benefit-3-types-survey-research/ https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-3-basic-types-of-descriptive-research-methods/ 67. Under what circumstances is a case study the preferred technique for gathering information. re the preferred strategy when “how” and “why” questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus in on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. 1. The general goal of a research study using the descriptive research strategy is to ____. a. describe an individual person or animal in great detail b. describe a variable or variables as they exist naturally c. measure and describe the relationship between variables d. describe and explain the relationship between variables b 3. How does the descriptive research strategy differ from the experimental or nonexperimental research strategies? a. It involves comparing groups of scores. b. It does not concern relationships between variables. c. It attempts to describe and explain relationships between variables. d. It does not involve the measurement of variables. b 4. What is the purpose for using habituation in an observational research study? a. It helps ensure the objectivity of the measurements. b. It helps ensure the reliability of the measurements. c. It provides an operational definition for the variables being measured. d. It helps ensure that the people being observed are not influenced by the presence of an observer. d 5. During a study using the behavioral research strategy, it is common to have two observers record behavior simultaneously. What is the purpose for this procedure? a. It is used to ensure the objectivity of the measurements. b. It is used to evaluate the reliability of the measurements. c. It provides an operational definition for the variables being measured. d. It helps ensure that the behaviors are not influenced by the presence of an observer. b 6. During a study using the behavioral research strategy, it is common to prepare a list of behaviors called behavioral categories before the actual observation begins. The least likely purpose for this procedure is to ____. a. ensure the objectivity of the measurements b. evaluate the reliability of the measurements c. provide an operational definition for the variables being measured d. simplify the recording task for the observer(s) d 10. Recording how many hours a week your roommate spends studying involves using the ____ method, while simply recording whether or not your roommate studies in a week involves using the ____ method. a. interval; frequency b. duration; interval c. frequency; duration d. interval; duration b 14. Content analysis involves using behavioral observation techniques to record behaviors that ____. a. occurred in the past b. occur in institutional settings such as hospitals or prisons c. occur in response to the researcher’s suggestion d. occur in movies or television shows d 15. When researchers apply behavioral observation techniques to historical records in order to measure behaviors that occurred in the past, the measurement process is called ____. a. behavioral observation b. event sampling c. content analysis d. archival research d 16. When researchers use behavioral observation techniques to measure behaviors in movies, what is the measurement process called? a. behavioral observation b. event sampling c. content analysis d. archival research c 18. Bird watching is most similar to what type of research? a. experimental b. participant observation c. naturalistic observation d. quasi-experimental c 19. A researcher has pairs of college student participants play a card game in the laboratory. However, the game is rigged to ensure that one participant experiences a long losing streak so that the researcher can observe how the losing students behave when they are frustrated. For this study, what kind of behavioral observation is being used? a. naturalistic observation b. participant observation c. contrived observation d. unstructured observation c 22. What is the main advantage of contrived observation (compared with other types of observational research)? a. It gives the researcher assurance that the observed behaviors are natural. b. It is less likely that the researcher is influencing the behaviors being observed. c. It is more efficient because the researcher does not have to wait for specific behaviors to occur naturally. d. It is less likely that the researcher will impose subjective interpretations on the data. c 23. A researcher who brings dating couples into the laboratory to be observed while they are solving a problem is most likely using ____. a. participant observation b. naturalistic observation c. contrived observation d. case study research c 26. What is a limitation of survey research? a. It only can be used to measure attitudes and opinions. b. It cannot be used to measure specific behaviors. c. The results are often difficult to evaluate. d. The results are limited by the truthfulness of the participants. d 27. What type of question allows participants the greatest flexibility in deciding how to answer? a. open-ended b. restricted c. rating scale d. physiological a 28. The multiple-choice questions on this exam are examples of ____ items. a. open-ended b. restricted c. rating scale d. physiological b 29. Essay questions on an exam are examples of ____ items. a. open-ended b. restricted c. rating scale d. physiological a 30. What type of question typically produces a numerical score for each participant? a. open-ended b. restricted c. rating scale d. partially open-ended c 31. On a questionnaire, Dr. Ondirk asks participants to answer the following questions? “What do you think about the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes?” This is an example of a(n) ____ question. a. restricted b. rating scale c. open-ended d. partially open-ended c 32. Which type of question is a Likert-type question? a. open-ended b. restricted c. rating scale d. physiological c 33. What is a problem with surveys administered by mail? a. You do not know exactly who completed the survey. b. You cannot maintain participant confidentiality. c. A mailed survey can be inconvenient for participants. d. A mailed survey can be threatening to participants. c 34. Administering a survey by telephone ____. a. allows for lengthy surveys b. is subject to interviewer bias c. is typically quite time-efficient d. requires only a small number of research assistants 35. What is an advantage to administering a survey over the Internet? a. 100% response rate b. survey can be individualized based on responses c. risk of interviewer bias d. none of the options are advantages 36. Which statement identifies a potential problem with Internet surveys? a. They tend to be costly and inefficient. b. They limit flexibility in presenting questions and response alternatives. c. It can be difficult to find a group of participants who share a specific interest. d. It can be difficult to control or even know the composition of the sample. 39. A case study typically involves the detailed study of a single ____. a. disease or psychiatric disorder b. clinical treatment c. group such as a fraternity or an athletic team d. individual d 40. The study of the brain surgery patient HM, who lost the ability to store new memories, is an example of ____. a. participant observation b. naturalistic observation c. correlational research d. case study research d 41. The goal of the descriptive research strategy is to describe the relationships that exist between variables. a. True b. False b 42. A limitation of descriptive studies is that they cannot assess the causal relationship between variables. a. True b. False a 43. Measuring inter-rater reliability helps ensure that behavioral observations are objective and are not influenced by subjective interpretations of the researcher. a. True b. False 51. A political scientist uses a survey to determine whether college students’ sleeping habits are related to their grade point averages. This researcher is using the descriptive survey research design. a. True b. False 52. One advantage of Likert-type rating scale questions is that they produce numerical scores that can be evaluated with standard statistical methods such as computing means. a. True b. False 53. One disadvantage of open-ended questions is that the responses can be very difficult to summarize and analyze. a. True b. False 55. One advantage of administering a survey by mail is that it minimizes the risk of interviewer bias. a. True b. False 59. Although a case study typically involves a single participant, the results can serve as a counterexample that influences an entire theory. a. True b. False 60. The case study design can be used to establish causal relationships between variables. a. True b. False 62. Describe what is measured by the mean and what is measured by the standard deviation for a set of scores. Describe the set of scores in a sample with a mean of M = 40 and a standard deviation of SD = 4. (Where are most of the scores located? Where are they centered? What range of values do they cover?) Mean: mathematical average of a set of scores The square root of the variance – Provides a measure of variability by describing the average distance from the mean 63. Identify the purpose for a hypothesis test and briefly explain how a hypothesis test accomplishes its purpose. What is a hypothesis test? – A systematic procedure • Determines whether the sample data provide convincing evidence to support the original research hypothesis • A hypothesis test ensures the internal validity of a research study • Goal of a hypothesis test – Rule out chance as a plausible explanation for the results Attempts to distinguish between two explanations for the sample data: 1. Patterns in the data representing systematic relationships among variables in the population 2. Patterns in the data produced by random variation from chance or sampling error 64. Explain the concept of statistical significance. Be sure that the concept of an alpha level in included in your explanation. Statistical significance is a way of mathematically proving that a certain statistic is reliable. A result of an experiment is said to have statistical significance, or be statistically significant, if it is likely not caused by chance for a given statistical significance level. The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. Know how to calculate the mean and standard deviation from a table of values showing the frequency of each value obtained. https://www.calculator.net/standard-deviation-calculator.html Know how to calculate the sensitivity and specificity of a test, and explain what is meant by sensitivity and specificity. In medical diagnosis, test sensitivity is the ability of a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positive rate), whereas test specificity is the ability of the testto correctly identify those without the disease (true negative rate). https://www.medcalc.org/calc/diagnostic_test.php 1. Which general category of statistical methods is intended to answer questions about populations by using sample data? a. parameters b. statistics c. descriptive statistics d. inferential statistics d 3. Statistical techniques that summarize, organize, and simplify data are best classified as ____ statistics. a. population b. sample c. descriptive d. inferential c 4. A researcher uses an anonymous survey to investigate the study habits of American college students. Based on the set of 56 surveys that were completed and returned, the researcher finds that these students spend an average of 4.1 hours each week working on course material outside of class. For this study, the average of 4.1 hours is an example of a(n) ____. a. parameter b. statistic c. population d. sample b 6. A researcher records the change in weight (gain or loss) during the first semester of college for each individual in a group of 25 freshmen, and calculates the average change in weight. The average is an example of a ____. a. parameter b. statistic c. variable d. constant b 7. A researcher is interested in the sleeping habits of students at the local state college. The entire set of students enrolled at the college is an example of a ____. a. statistic b. parameter c. sample d. population d 9. To construct a frequency distribution graph displaying a set of scores that were measured on an interval or a ratio scale, you should use a ____. a. histogram b. line graph c. bar graph d. scatter plot a 12. If a frequency distribution is shown in a bar graph, what scale was used to measure the scores? a. nominal only b. nominal or ordinal c. ratio only d. interval or ratio b 14. A researcher has measured self-esteem for a sample of 40 first-grade children. The researcher would like to divide the children into two equal‑sized groups consisting of the high self-esteem kids and the low self-esteem kids. Which statistical measure will identify the correct score to serve as the boundary between the high and the low self-esteem groups? a. the mean b. the median c. the mode d. the standard deviation b 15. If a distribution of numerical scores contains one or two extremely high values, compared to the rest of the scores, which measure of central tendency would produce the most representative value? a. the mean b. the median c. the mode d. the standard deviation a 16. It is possible for a distribution of scores to have more than one ____. a. mean b. median c. mode d. range c 18. What is the definition of variance? a. the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores b. the average distance from the mean c. the square root of the average distance from the mean d. the average squared distance from the mean d 20. Where is a score of X = 45 located in a distribution with a mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 12? a. slightly above average b. far above average c. slightly below average d. far below average a 21. The most commonly used descriptive statistics for a set of numerical scores are the mean and the ____. a. range b. standard deviation c. mode d. median b 22. What would the scatter plot show for data that produce a Pearson correlation of r = +.88? a. points clustered close to a line that slopes up to the right b. points clustered close to a line that slopes down to the right c. points widely scattered around a line that slopes up to the right d. points widely scattered around a line that slopes down to the right a 27. By convention, it has been determined that alpha levels should be set no larger than ____. a. .50 b. .10 c. .05 d. .01 c 28. What outcome is likely to occur for a hypothesis test evaluating a treatment that has a very large and robust effect? a. a Type I error b. a Type II error c. correctly rejecting the null hypothesis d. correctly failing to reject the null hypothesis c 29. A researcher reports a significant correlation using an alpha level of .01. In this situation, the probability that the researcher is making a ____. a. Type I error is p > .01 b. Type I error is p < .01 c. Type II error is p > .01 d. Type II error is p < .01. b 30. A Type I error means that a researcher has ____. a. falsely concluded that a treatment has an effect b. correctly concluded that a treatment has no effect c. falsely concluded that a treatment has no effect d. correctly concluded that a treatment has an effect a 31. A Type II error means that a researcher has ____. a. falsely concluded that a treatment has an effect b. correctly concluded that a treatment has no effect c. falsely concluded that a treatment has no effect d. correctly concluded that a treatment has an effect c 32. Which combination of factors is most likely to result in a significant outcome for a hypothesis test? a. a small sample size and a small variance b. a small sample size and a large variance c. a large sample size and a small variance d. a large sample size and a large variance 33. Under what circumstances is a very small treatment effect still likely to be statistically significant? a. if the sample size is small and the sample variance is small b. if the sample size is small and the sample variance is large c. if the sample size is large and the sample variance is small d. if the sample size is large and the sample variance is large c 35. One category of data is obtained by measuring one variable for each individual in a single group of participants. What statistics are most commonly used for data in this category? a. descriptive statistics b. t tests or analysis of variance c. correlations or chi-square tests d. analysis of variance or chi-square tests 41. The goal of descriptive statistics is to simplify, summarize, and organize data. a. True b. False 43. A researcher records the average age for a group of 25 preschool children selected to participate in a research study. The average age is an example of a statistic. a. True b. False 44. In a frequency distribution graph, the frequencies are listed on the vertical axis. a. True b. False 47. In a distribution with a mean of M = 36 and a standard deviation of SD = 8, a score of 40 would be considered an extreme value. a. True b. False 48. In a distribution with a mean of M = 76 and a standard deviation of SD = 7, a score of 91 would be considered an extreme value. a. True b. False 49. A negative correlation means that as the X values decrease, the Y values also tend to decrease. a. True b. False 51. When a research report demonstrates a significant treatment effect at the .05 level, you can be more confident that the effect is real than if the researcher had reported a significant effect with an alpha level of only .01. a. True b. False 52. A researcher reports a significant correlation using an alpha level of .01. The probability that the researcher is making a Type I error is p < .01. a. True b. False 55. In general, a sample with large variance is more likely to produce a significant result than a sample with small variance. a. True b. False 57. For data that consist of two or more groups of scores with each score a numerical value measuring the same variable, the most common statistics are those that measure and evaluate the mean differences between groups. a. True b. False Why learn about Research Methods? Research methods= scientific thinking Scientific thinking brings order from chaos “method of tenacity” Holding onto ideas or beliefs as facts simply because they have been repeated for a long time, or are part of folklore or superstition Limitations Info may not be accurate No method for correcting erroneous ideas Knowledge obtained through tenacity may actually strengthen or solidify those beliefs Science Denial Denial of well-established evidence Public relations projects Fake experts Mere statistical data Conspiracy theories Impossible standards for research Cherry pick data and quote mining Cognitive bias Previous knowledge that skews how we interpret information Method of intuition Info is accepted as true because it “feels right” In the absence of data, it can be a reasonable approach for decision making Lessons learned through experience Statistical learning Method of authority Seek out experts for their knowledge Levels of evidence=expert opinion Pitfalls= opinion may be biased, expertise in one area does not convey expertise in another, need for corroboration from more than one source Rationalism Seek answers by logical reasoning Deduce answer from true premises The empirical method Use observation and or direct experience to obtain knowledge Observations can be systematic and purposeful Limitations=observations can be over interpreted 1/17/2019 Scientific Method observe behavior or phenomenon Can by casual: something sparks your interest and makes you ask why Formal: seeking out info about a certain topic or research article Inductive reasoning Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis) Factors associated with an observation: sex, age, language, socio-economic status Use a hypothesis to generate a testable prediction Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations Use observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis Example Stuttering People stutter when they speak, but not when they sing Could we use rhythmic speech a therapy technique? Hypothesis: Using singing as part of therapy for stuttering will result in an increase for fluency Hypothesis A statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables Can be tested Science is empirical, public, and objective Systematic Observation= performed in a way to accurately address the question, variables should be controlled, should be performed in a way that addresses the question Objectivity Examine your own biases Inform yourself of other perspectives Quantitative vs Qualitative Research Observations interpreted through statistical analysis Observations turned into a narrative report 1/31/19 Linus Pauling & the common cold 2-time Nobel peace prize winner for vitamin C and activism in treating the common cold Cochrane database has articles on empirical evidence for certain treatments Data collection and analysis—authors review the data Relative risk/risk ratio: number of ppl who got cold on vitamin / number of people who got cold on placebo 2/7/2019 Forming and recognizing a hypothesis Imagery helps form ideas idk Should be logical Based on established theories or developed from the results of previous research Should be testable and refutable Hypothesis should be stated in the positive Because we use statistical tests that state the null hypothesis Our data provides the evidence for the truth of the hypothesis It cannot be structured to deny the existence of something Independent and dependent variables Treatments/exposures/conditions that we vary to produce a measurable outcome The variables we manipulate are independent variables The variables we measure are dependent variables PICO framework for clinical research Population: patients, Intervention: treatment, Comparison: of different treatments, Outcome: results of data collection and analysis 2/14/2019 Variables= characteristic or conditions that can change Characteristic: gender, race, ses, age, background Conditions: quiet-noise, one ear/two ears, spontaneous speech vs scripted speech All variables need to be defined and measured Sometimes variables are more abstract and difficult to define ex knowledge Theories and constructs In behavioral science a theory is a set of statements about mechanisms underlying a particular behavior Generates predictions about behavior/outcomes Constructs are attributes or mechanisms that help explain behavior/outcomes in a theory Motivation, emotional state, morality, love, hate Influenced by external stimuli and influences external behavior Stimulus--> construct --> behavior Assignment--> motivation ---> minutes of study/day Operational Definition A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable (construct) that cannot be observed or measured directly Work—stress—heart rate Beeps—hearing—response Free time—happiness—smiling Environment (class vs. Party)—language—vocab used Concurrent validity Predictive validity Construct validity Previous research to determine how variable will behave Measurements behave in same way as variable itself Convergent validity Two different methods of measuring give same result Divergent validity When measuring two different constructs, the measurements are related Satisfaction and quality Reliability of measurement Stability/consistency of measurement Concept of reliability Assumption that variable being measured is stable Scales: Nominal: qualitative, categorical, not related to each other Hair color, college major, food group preference Ordinal: sequentially ordered scales, series of ranks, directional relationship but distance between items may not be the same Interval or ratio scales: sequential, equal units Interval: arbitrary 0 point (temp scale, sound pressure scale) Ratio: 0 is meaningful and means none Modality of Measurement Self-report: a direct way to assess a construct, assesses each person's unique perspective, good face-validity, but participants may distort self-reports, compromising validity Behavioral: measure overt behavior that is related to a construct, operational definitions of the construct will define behavioral measures, need to define several behaviors to evaluate construct Physiological: evaluate physiological manifestations of a construct such as heart rate, skin impedance, pupil size, eeg, evoked potentials, fMRI, objective, expensive, indirect measure of constructs Research Strategies Descriptive strategies: answers questions about the current state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals, not concerned with relationships between variables, only values of individual variable, descriptive studies serve as a snapshot of characteristics in a study sample population Correlational research strategy: measuring two variables for each individual and see how they relate to one-another, describes only the relationship between the two variables not the why 4/4/2019 Clinical Decision Analysis Quantitative, systematic approach to decision making Signal detection theory (SDT) is used when psychologists want to measure the way we make decisions under conditions of certainty Assumes that decision maker is active “Gold standard” evaluation method Expensive and difficult, but needed to avoid discrimination, therefore used to compare to clinical test results Sensitivity= how good is test at detecting disorder vs the gold standard test Specificity= how good is clinical test at passing people who do NOT have disorder What are acceptable values for sensitivity and specificity?? What percentage are you willing to miss? What percentage of ppl that DON’T have the condition are you willing to say have it and go on to more invasive testing to show they don’t have it? For low prevalence target condition, specificity is important, you want to be able to pass most people For high prevalence target condition, specificity is important, you want to detect condition in those that have it When prevalence is high a positive test confirms a disease, but negative is not helpful in ruling it out. When prevalence is low a negative test rules out disease, but positive test does not help confirm it 4/23/2019 Limitations of ordinal data Do not provide any measure of distance between data points Guess we’re just talking bout fuckin TCEs I guess Meta analysis Duration refers to  A How long the investigators did the study  B How long the effects of vitamin C lasted  C Mean number of days of illness of cold episodes  D Proportion of participants experiencing 1 or more colds during the study period Risk Ratio Relative risk or risk ratio (RR) is the ratio of the probability of an event occurring (developing a cold) in an exposed group (the group that took vitamin C) to the probability of the event occurring in a comparison, non-exposed group (group who took the placebo). For example Number who got colds and took vitamin C = 980 ÷ Number who got colds and took placebo= 1000 Basic vs. Applied Research • Basic: Knowledge for the sake of knowledge • Applied: to solve a practical problem • Translational: Using basic research to solve a practical problem • Examples • The influence of stimulus level, duration and rate and subject age on cortical auditory evoked potentials • What are the best ways to measure hearing sensitivity in an infant: behavioral or electrophysiological? • Using cortical auditory evoked potentials to estimate threshold in infants Conducting a literature search • Two goals of a literature search: • Gain familiarity with the literature in your specific area • Find a smaller set of studies that will form the basis of your research effort • Use the discussion session of research articles to help guide new areas for research • What thoughts have you had from reading your assignment 2 article? Conducting a literature search • Two goals of a literature search: • Gain familiarity with the literature in your specific area • Find a smaller set of studies that will form the basis of your research effort • Use the discussion session of research articles to help guide new areas for research • What thoughts have you had from reading your assignment 2 article? Preparing for a Literature Search • Subject words • Use on-line resources to help identify the correct words • Authors • Online databases • Some are full-text • Others have links to full-text • PsycInfo • Definitive source for abstracts of scholarly research articles in psychology • ERIC • Education resource information center • Medline-medicine, nursing, health care, allied health, clinical scien Hypothesis should be logical, testable and refutable, stated in the positive Independent and Dependent Variables • In a research study, there are treatments/exposures/conditions that we vary to produce a measureable outcome. • The variables we manipulate are called “independent” variables. • The variables we measure are called dependent variables. • Research question • What is the effect of maternal level of education on children’s vocabulary size? • Hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between maternal level of education on children’s vocabularly size. • What are the independent variables? • What are the dependent variables? • What should we control for PICO Framework for Clinical Research Studies • P opulation: patients/participants • I ntervention (or treatment or exposure) • C omparison: (of different treatments or exposures) • O utcome: Results of data collection and analysis Variables  Characteristics or conditions that can change:  Charcteristics: male-female, race, SES, genetic status, age, background, educational achievement  Conditions: quiet-noise, one ear-two ears, spontaneous speech vs. scripted speech, effort level  All variables need to be defined and measured  Sometimes variables are more abstract and are difficult to define and measure eories and Constructs  In behavioral science, a theory is a set of statements about mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.  A good theory generates predictions about behavior/ outcomes  Constructs are attributes or mechanisms that help explain behavior/outcomes in a theory.  Constructs  Motivation  Emotional state mitations and uses of Operational Definitions  These definitions are an indirect measure of the construct.  Behaviors that can be measured may be only a part of the total construct.  Need for more than one measurement to be able to capture more of the construct.  Use the existing literature to determine how best to measure the behaviors associated with a construct. What is validity the degree to which the measurement process measures what it claims to Measure ace Validity  Simplest and least scientific definition  The face value of a measurement process  Does it look as if it measures the construct? ncurrent and Predictive Validity  Concurrent Validity  Scores on the new measure show a strong positive relationship with a more established measure.  Predictive validity  Theory involving the construct predicts how values of a construct predict certain behaviors  When the measurement of the variable predicts the behavior, it has predictive validity.  Example: A person with hearing loss will have poor speech perception for ongoing discourse.  Speech tracking  Word discrimination scores onstruct and Convergent/Divergent Validity  Construct validity  Use previous research to determine how the variable behaves  Demonstrate that measurements behave in the same way as the variable itself  Constuct validity is never established absolutely.  Convergence:  Two different methods of measuring a construct give the same result  Divergence  When measuring two different constructs, the measurements are unrelated. Reliability of Measurement • The reliability of a measurement is the stability or consistency of the measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement produces identical (or nearly so) measurements. Concept of Reliability • Based upon the assumption that the variable being measured is stable or constant. • There is always some element of error. • Noise • Overtime, noise averages out • If noise or error is large, it won’t average out sufficiently to see the true value of the variable. • Measurement is not reliable. Sources of error in measurement • Observer error • Environmental changes • Participant changes ypes of measures of reliability • Successive measurements • Simulatneous measurements • Internal consistency Successive Measurements • Aka Test-Retest reliability • Give the same test more than one time to the same people. • Give a slightly different version each time • Parallel-forms reliability • When you evaluate standardized tests used in SLP or AUD you should evaluate how they have determined that the measure is reliable. Simultaneous Measurements • Use of more than one observer • Inter-rater reliability • Compute a correlation between the scores Internal Consistency • The measurement of a construct may depend on a questionnaire or set of items for response • A questionnaire or test may be divided to see if there are higher or different scores on one set of questions vs. another. • Calculate the correlation between the two- halves: split-half reliability. Scales Nominal • Qualitative • Categorical • Not related to each other • Hair color • College major • Food group preference • Fruit, veg, meat, Ordinal • Sequentially ordered scales • Series of ranks • Directional relationship but distance between items may not be the same. nterval or Ratio scales • Sequential • Equal units • Interval scales have an arbitrary 0 point • Temperature scale • Sound pressure level • Ratio scales • 0 is meaningful and means “none Modalities of Measurement • Self-report measures • Physiological • Behavioral measure Modalities Self Report A direct way to assess a construct Assesses each person’s unique perspective Good face-vailidity But, participants may distort self-reports, compromising validty. Physiological Evaluate physiological manifestations of a construct Heart rate Skin impedance Pupil size EEG Evoked potentials fMRI Objective Expensive Indirect measure of construct. Behavioral Measure overt behavior that is related to a construct. Operational definitions of the construct will define behavioral measures Need to define several behaviors to evaluate the construct Descriptive Strategy • Answers questions about the current state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals • How much time does this class spend studying? • What is the attendance rate? • What is the average performance on assignments? • Descriptive studies are not concerned with relationships between variables, only the values of the individual variables. • Descriptive studies serve as a “snapshot” of characteristics in a study sample/population. Correlational Research Strategy: • Measuring two variables for each individual and see how they relate to one-another. • How does the amount of time spent studying relate to your score on an exam? • The correlational strategy describes only the relationship between the two variables, it cannot explain the “why”. • Another correlational strategy is to measure one variable in two different groups. This is a quasi- experimental design. • Study time for majors vs study time for non-majors Experimental Research Strategy • Intended to answer cause-and-effect questions. • Researcher manipulates conditions • The experimental strategy is to explain the relationship by determining the underlying cause. Definition of research design • A general plan for implementing a research strategy. A design specifies the participants and the comparisons to be made and the variables to be controlled or manipulated. What is validity? • The truth of the research and the accuracy of the conclusions. • Validity can also be used to apply to measurement (as we did last week). • In this context we are applying validity to the whole research study External Validity • How well the results of a study can be generalized to other groups and in other settings. • A threat to validity is when there is a characteristic (flaw?) that limits the ability to generalize the resuls. hree types of generalization • From a sample to the general population • Try to make your sample have the same characteristics as the general population • From one research study to another • Related to reliability • From the lab to a real-world situation • Translational researac nternal Validity • When a research study produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables. • Are there alternative explanations? This is defined as a threat to internal validity • But, as scientists we are trained to be skeptics and seek alternative explanations!! DEFINE INTERNAL VALIDITY • A research study has internal validity if it produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables. • A threat to internal validity is a factor that allows for an alternative explanation. XTRANEOUS VARIABLES AS CONFOUNDERS AND THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY • Variables that exist in a study but are not directly investigated are called extraneous variables • They may threaten internal validity when they become confounders. • When it influences or distorts the results • A confounding variable is an extraneous variable (unmonitored or controlled) that changes systematically with the two variables being studied. • The confounding variable provides an alternative explanation for the observed relationship between the studied variables. nvironmental variables • Time of day • Type of room • Season of the year • Individual Differences • Avoid assignment bias by random assignment to groups • Time related variables • When measurements are made (in relation to treatment) • Practice and fatigue effe ctivity—participants alter their normal behavior in response to the fact they are participating in a study • Demand characteristics—when the methods used in the study offer a clue as to what the hypothesis is and influence participants to act in a certain way. ndependent variable • Treatment condition • Levels • Dependent variable • Extraneous variables • The variable manipulated by researcher • A situation or environmental condition characterized by one value of the independent variable • Different values of the independent variable • Variable observed to change when IV is manipulated • All other variables (need to be controlled? ESTABLISING CAUSE-AND- EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS • It may be obvious, but the first rule is that you have to show that the cause precedes the effect! • To establish that the change in (independent) variable is responsible for the effect, the experimenter needs to manipulate the independent variable. • The experiment must also rule out effects from extraneous variables. imulation • The creation of conditions in the experiment that duplicate normal environment in which behaviors would occur. Field studies • Research conducted in a place that the participant perceives as a natural environment dvantages • Increase realism of experiment. • Increase external validity Disadvantages • Loss of control of extraneous variables • Threat to internal validity © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. • What are descriptive statistics? – Methods that help researchers organize, summarize, and simplify the results obtained from research studies • What are inferential statistics? – Methods that use the results obtained from samples to help make generalizations about populations 1 Frequency distributions – A method of simplifying and organizing a set of scores by grouping them into an organized display • A frequency distribution table consists of two columns of information: – First column ► the scale of measurement – Second column ► the frequency of individuals located in each category 15.2 5.1 Central tendency is a statistical measure – Identifies a single score that defines the center of a distribution • Goal: to identify the value that is most typical or most representative of the entire group – Mean: mathematical average of a set of scores – Median: score that divides a distribution in half – Mode: most commonly occurring scor © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. • Variance measures the variability of the scores by computing the average squared distance from the mean 1. Measure the distance from the mean for each score ► square the distances and find the sum of the squared distances 2. Compute the average squared distance by dividing the sum of the squared distances by n - 1 Sum of squared deviations 1433.230 • Variance is 1433.23/N-1= 1433.23/31 = • 46.22 • Std dev is square root of 46.22= 6.8 What is a hypothesis test? – A systematic procedure • Determines whether the sample data provide convincing evidence to support the original research hypothesis • A hypothesis test ensures the internal validity of a research study • Goal of a hypothesis test – Rule out chance as a plausible explanation for the results Attempts to distinguish between two explanations for the sample data: 1. Patterns in the data representing systematic relationships among variables in the population 2. Patterns in the data produced by random variation from chance or sampling error Null hypothesis • Sample statistic • Standard error • Test statistic • Alpha level (level of significance) What is a Type I error? – A false report: a researcher finds evidence for a significant result when there is no effect (no relationship) in the population – An unusual or extreme sample leads to this error What is a Type II error? – Sample data does not show evidence of a significant effect when a real effect exists in the population – Occurs when the effect is so small that it does not show up in the sample nal detection theory (SDT) is used when psychologists want to measure the way we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty.  This is often the case when we need to make a decision of normal vs. abnormal in a clinical case.  SDT assumes that the decision maker is not a passive receiver of information, but an active decision-maker who makes difficult perceptual judgments under conditions of uncertainty need to know if the methods we use to evaluate patients are able to discriminate between someone who has a condition or does not.  To do this we need to have a “gold standard” evaluation method. Usually the “gold standard” method is not one that could be given on a regular basis (to expensive or difficult).  We compare the clinical method results to the “gold standard” test results. Descriptive Research Strategy • The goal is to describe a single variable or to obtain separate descriptions of each variable when several are involved. • This is a useful strategy for preliminary research because the first step in understanding a phenomenon or behavior is to gain some idea of the variable in a natural setting. 3 types of descriptive research designs: • Observational research • Survey research • Case Study Observational Research Design • The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe the behavior. • Problems with the influence of the presence of an observer? • Demand characteristics and subect reactivity • Solution: habituate subjects to presence of an observer Other elements of behavioral observation strategy • Need some controls/check for subjectivity and reliability. This involves: • A priori decisions about what behaviors are to be measured. • Good operational defninitions of a construct! • Employ at least one other individual to observe and record the behaviors for inter-rater reliability. Types of observation Naturalistic • A researcher observes behavior in a natural setting as unobstrusively as possible. • Participant Observation • The researcher enages in the same activities as people being observed. • Contrived Observation • A researcher observes behaviors in settings arranged to facilitate the occurrence of specific behaviors • Example: Language/Discourse at home vs. in a clinic Setting Major weaknesses of Observational Design • Time consuming • Potential for observer influence • Potential for subjective interpretation/loss of observer objectivity. Survey Research Design • A survey research design is a research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals. • 4 issues to be addressed in the survey research design: • Questions must be developed • The questions must be organized to produce a well- constructed survey • Selection process for who takes a survey—subject selection issues • How it is administered: in-person, mail, internet, phone call? Types of Questions • Open-ended • yes-no • multiple choice (restricted choice), • rating scale • Likert scale https://d2l.arizona.edu/d2l/le/content/755681/viewContent/6874351/View Description of Qualitative Research • “ Qualitative Research is non-numerical” • Takes place in naturally occurring situations • Contrast with quantitative research that focuses on numerical data and control/manipulation of variables. • It provides a detailed description of a specific program or practice. • “ Naturalistic enquiry”. Why use qualitative methods • Need to focus on the complexity of a behavior (speech and language) and the context in which it occurs • Need to focus on the patient/client/consumer and their outcomes and the impact of our services on quality of life • Need for methods that can more easily address diversity he primary characteristic of qualitative research is that it focuses on understanding real-life events or situations ...and studies them in a naturalistic environment. • Involves insight into the participants personal experiences Case study • This is the most commonly found qualitative research design in speech-language pathology and audiology • A case study is a retrospective research method involving detailed analysis of one or more individuals, groups, institutions, programs or other entities. • A detailed description of a single entity Purpose: • To understand unusual patients or conditions • Provide examples of innovative treatments • Generating theory • Providing implications for future research • But consider the problems: • Small sample • Rare conditions • Biased sampling/convenience samp ata collection for qualitative research • Open-ended questions • Interviews- may be influenced by rapport that interviewer has with subject; subjectivity • Observations-unstructured (time consuming and labor intensive) • Self-reports—validity and accuracy?? • Focus groups—can be dominated by one or more members. Needs a skilled facilitator • Analysis of existing documents: notes, files, diaries, newspaper articles, videos, memorabilia. Descriptive Research Strategy • The goal is to describe a single variable or to obtain separate descriptions of each variable when several are involved. • This is a useful strategy for preliminary research because the first step in understanding a phenomenon or behavior is to gain some idea of the variable in a natural setting. Observational Research Design • The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe the behavior. • Problems with the influence of the presence of an observer? • Demand characteristics and subect reactivity ther elements of behavioral observation strategy • Need some controls/check for subjectivity and reliability. This involves: • A priori decisions about what behaviors are to be measured. • Good operational defninitions of a construct! • Employ at least one other individual to observe and record the behaviors for inter-rater reliability. LIMITATIONS OF ORDINAL DATA  We don’t know the size of the difference between “strongly agree” or “agree” or “neither agree nor disagree”.  Ordinal scales do not provide any measure of distance.  Scores from an ordinal scale are not compatible with arithmetic functions, such as finding the mean and standard deviation although they are generally treated that way ANALYZED ACCORDING TO A VALIDITY MODEL  The final database consisted of 158 journal articles and 2 book chapters, including empirical studies, theoretical pieces, and other types of articles.  The following types of validity were considered:  Construct-related validity (convergent/divergent validity)  the extent to which an instrument can be seen as a meaningful measure of a given characteristic.  Content-related validity (AKA face validity)  the extent to which the items of an instrument are appropriate representations of the content being measured.  Criterion related validity ( AKA concurrent validity, predictive validity)  the extent to which scores are related to another independent and external variable that can serve as a direct measure of the underlying characteri CONCLUSIONS BASED ON META- ANALYSIS  This review has shown that the utility and validity ascribed to SET should continue to be called into question .  Our systematic use of the meta-validity framework of Onwuegbuzie et al. (2009), however, shows that many types of validity of SET remain at stake.  Because conclusive evidence has not been found yet, such evaluations should be considered fragile .  The [value of] indicators of effective teaching [as judged by students]...continues to be contested in the research literature PURPOSE We review statistical issues in analyzing and comparing SET scores, problems defining and measuring teaching effectiveness, and pernicious distortions that result from using SET scores as a proxy for teaching quality and effectiveness. The literature shows that students are in a good position to evaluate some aspects of teaching, but SET are at best tenuously connected to teaching effectivene